Biblical Exegesis: An Introductory Overview

Felix Just, S.J., Ph.D.

Introduction / Definitions:

Exegesis - careful investigation of the original meaning of texts in their historical and literary contexts; the English word comes from a Greek verb meaning "to lead out of" (Greek ex = "out"; agein = "to lead/go/draw"); the process basically involves asking analytical questions about various aspects of the texts and their contexts
- the opposite processs is called Eisegesis, which means "reading [your own opinions] into" the text (not a good idea in biblical studies!)
Biblical Criticism / Critical Methods - various ways of doing biblical exegesis, each having a specific goal and a specific set of questions; some methods are more historical, others more literary, others more sociological, theological, etc.
- biblical "criticism" does not mean "criticizing" the text (i.e. what you don't like or don't agree with);
- rather, it means asking "critical" questions, based on "criteria" that are as clear, careful, and objective as possible.
Hermeneutics - the theory and methodology of interpretation, especially of scriptural texts; a branch of theology that deals with the principles underlying biblical exegesis.

Various Methods of Biblical Exegesis / Interpretation:

The following table lists many different approaches or methods of biblical interpretation, as grouped in the document "The Interpretation of the Bible in the Church" (IBC), by the Pontifical Biblical Commission (1993).

A) The Historical-Critical Method	Questions Typically Asked:
Composition History Questions	* Who is the author of the work? What do we know about him/her/them? * Is the attributed author the actual author, or is the work pseudepigraphic? * When, where, and under what circumstances was the work written? * Who were the original recipients? Where did they live?
Traditional Literary Criticism	* What words are used, and what range of meanings do they have? * What images and symbols are used, and what do they signify? * What characters appear in the story? What do we know about them? * How are the characters related to one another in the story?
Comparison of Translations	* Are there any significant differences between various modern translations? * When were these translations done, using which translation philosophies? * Which ancient Hebrew or Greek texts underlie the various translations? * Has anything been lost or obscured in the process of translation?
Textual Criticism	* Are there any variant readings in the ancient manuscripts? * Are the variants negligible (mere spelling) or significant (affecting meaning)? * Can the variants be explained as intentional changes, or as accidental ones? * How do the literary or historical contexts help explain the variant readings?
Source Criticism	* Does the text have any underlying source or sources? * Which version of a source was used, in case there is more than one? * What do the sources actually say and mean in their original contexts? * How are the sources used (quoted, paraphrased, adapted?) in the later text?
Form Criticism	* What is the literary form or “genre” of the whole work and the particular text? * Does the text follow or diverge from the usual expectations for this genre? * What is the normal purpose/goal of this genre? * In what social context would texts of this genre have been used?
Redaction Criticism	* How has the author used the source(s) in shaping this text? * Are there any parallel texts, and how is this text similar and/or different? * What particular views or theological emphases does this author show? * How did the author’s life circumstances affect the shaping of the text?
Socio-Historical Criticism	* If the story claims to be historical, what really happened? * What social, historical, or cultural information can be gleaned from the text? * What background information is necessary to better understand the text? * What was life like for the common people, not just the ruling elites?
B) New Methods of Literary Analysis	Questions Typically Asked:
Rhetorical Analysis	* What message is the author trying to convey? * Is the author attempting to instruct, inspire, defend, or persuade the reader? * What rhetorical techniques does he use to achieve his goals?
Narrative Analysis	* Who are the characters in the story? What roles do they play? * What is the plot sequence? What narrative time is covered? * What is the author’s and/or narrator’s point of view?
Semiotic Analysis	* What deeper patterns of meaning are conveyed by the words and symbols?
C) Approaches Based on Tradition	Questions Typically Asked:
Canonical Approach	* Where does this text belong in the literary context of the entire Bible? * How is this text related to prior texts and/or later texts in the Bible? * How does its location in the Canon affect the meaning of this text?
Using Jewish Interpretative Traditions	* How do traditional Jewish methods of interpretation read this text? * Are there any parallel or similar stories in Rabbinic literature? * Do Jewish and Christian interpretations of this text differ significantly?
History of Interpretation (Wirkungsgeschichte)	* How was this text interpreted by the “Church Fathers” and in later centuries? * Is the text interpreted differently by various churches and denominations? * How has the text been interpreted in art, music, liturgy, and popular culture?
D) Apps. Using the Human Sciences	Questions Typically Asked:
Sociological Approach	* What insights from Sociology can help in the interpretation of the text? * What patterns of human social behavior are evident in the text?
Cultural Anthropology Approach	* What models from Cultural Anthropology can help us understand the text? * What cultural presuppositions/patterns affect the interpretation of the text?
Psychological/Psychoanalytical Approaches	* How can the text be interpreted using various theories from Psychology? * Can the text help us understand the human psyche better?
E) Contextual Approaches	Questions Typically Asked:
Liberationist Approach	* Has this text been used for domination of oppressed people? How? * Can this text be used for the liberation of the poor/disadvantaged? How? * Can other texts counteract the detrimental effects of oppressive texts?
Feminist Approach	* Does the text evidence gender bias? Was later interpretation also biased? * How is the meaning of the text affected if read from a feminist perspective? * What other texts can be recovered and used to balance out biased texts?

What does Section I of the IBC document itself say are the advantanges/strengths and disadvantages/weaknesses of each of these methods?
Fill in the following chart yourself (my own suggestions are at the bottom of this page):

Methods of Exegesis/Interpretation	Advantages/Strengths of These Methods:	Disadvantages/Weaknesses of These Methods:
A) The Historical-Critical Method	* * *	* * *
B) New Methods of Literary Analysis	* * *	* * *
C) Approaches Based on Tradition	* * *	* * *
D) Approaches Using Human Sciences	* * *	* * *
E) Contextual Approaches	* * *	* * *
*F) Fundamentalist Interpretation*	* * *	* * *

Suggestions for Further Reading:

Carvalho, Corrine L. Primer on Biblical Methods. Winona, MN: Anselm Academic, 2009.
- One of the best recent introductions; easy to read and practical.
Hayes, John H. and Carl R. Holladay. Biblical Exegesis: A Beginner's Handbook. 4th edition. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2022.
- A practical step-by-step guide with a minimum of technical terms, solid introductions in exegetical method, and good presentations of exegetical theory and practice.
Gorman, Michael J. Elements of Biblical Exegesis: A Basic Guide for Students and Ministers. 3rd edition. Hendrickson, 2020.

This third edition "explains recent developments in theological interpretation and explores missional and non-Western readings of the biblical text."

Green, Joel B., ed. Hearing the New Testament: Strategies for Interpretation. 2nd edition. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2010.
- Eighteen in-depth articles covering both traditional and more modern interpretive methods: historical, social, literary, etc.
Anderson, Janice Capel, and Stephen D. Moore. Mark and Method: New Approaches in Biblical Studies. 2nd edition. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2008.
- Studies of Mark using a range of newer interpretive methods; the 2nd edition includes new chapters on Cultural Studies and Post-Colonial Criticism.
Montague, George T. Understanding the Bible: A Basic Introduction to Biblical Interpretation. 2nd edition. Mahwah, NJ: Paulist, 2007.
- An historical survey of the major trends in how the Bible has been interpreted over the past 2000 years; the book concludes with examinations of Dei Verbum (from Vatican II) and of The Interpretation of the Bible in the Church (by the PBC).
Fee, Gordon D. New Testament Exegesis: A Handbook for Students and Pastors. 3rd edition. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2002. – and –
Stuart, Douglas. Old Testament Exegesis: A Handbook for Students and Pastors. 5th edition. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2022.
- Very practical "how to" manuals, but requiring some use of the original biblical languages.
For briefer overviews, see also:
- C. Holladay & W. Walker, "Biblical Criticism," HarperCollins Bible Dictionary, 141-46;
- or W. Baird, "Biblical Criticism (NT)," Anchor Bible Dictionary, vol. 1, pp. 730-36;
  also the ABD articles on "Source Criticism," "Form Criticism," "Redaction Criticism," "Textual Criticism," "Gospel Genre," "Feminist Hermeneutics," and "Sociology (Early Christianity)."
Some older editions, somewhat dated but possibly still helpful:
- Conzelmann, Hans, and A. Lindemann. Interpreting the New Testament: The Introduction to the Principles& Methods of New Testament Exegesis. Hendrickson, 1988.
- Harrington, Daniel J. Interpreting the Old Testament: A Practical Guide. Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 1981; rev. 1991.
- Harrington, Daniel J. Interpreting the New Testament: A Practical Guide. Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 1979, rev. 1990.
- Keegan, O.P., Terence. J. Interpreting the Bible: Popular Introduction to Biblical Hermeneutics. Mahwah, NJ: Paulist, 1985.
- Stenger, Werner. Introduction to New Testament Exegesis. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1993.

See also the Guides to Biblical Scholarship series by Fortress Press:

Canon and Community: A Guide to Canonical Criticism, by James A Sanders. 1984.
Cultural Anthropology and the Old Testament, by Thomas W. Overholt. 1996.
Folklore and the Hebrew Bible, by Susan Niditch. 1993.
Form Criticism of the Old Testament, by Gene M. Tucker. 1971.
The Historical-Critical Method, by Edgar Krentz. 1975.
Interpreting Hebrew Poetry, by David L. Petersen; Kent Harold Richards. 1992.
Letters in Primitive Christianity, by William G. Doty. 1973.
Literary Criticism for New Testament Critics, by Norman R. Petersen. 1978.
Literary Criticism of the New Testament, by William A. Beardslee. 1970.
Literary Criticism of the Old Testament, by Norman C. Habel. 1971.
The New Historicism, by Gina Hens-Piazza. 2002.
The New Testament Canon: Its Making and Meaning, by Harry Y. Gamble. 1985.
The Old Testament and the Archaeologist, by H. Darrell Lance. 1981.
The Old Testament and the Historian, by James Maxwell Miller. 1977.
The Old Testament and the Literary Critic, by David A. Robertson. 1977.
Psychological Biblical Criticism, by D. Andrew Kille. 2000.
Rhetoric and the New Testament, by Burton L. Mack. 1989.
Rhetorical Criticism: Context, Method, and the Book of Jonah, by Phyllis Trible. 1995.
Social Approaches to the Old Testament, by Robert R. Wilson. 1984.
Structural Exegesis for New Testament Critics, by Daniel Patte. 1990.
Textual Criticism of the Old Testament: From the Septuagint to Qumran, by Ralph W Klein. 1974.
Textual Criticism: Recovering the Text of the Hebrew Bible, by P. Kyle McCarter Jr.1986.
Tradition History and the Old Testament, by Walter E. Rast, 1972.
What Is Form Criticism?, by Edgar V. McKnight. 1969.
What Is Midrash?, by Jacob Neusner. 1987.
What Is Narrative Criticism?, by Mark Allan Powell. 1990.
What Is New Testament Theology?, by Hendrikus Boers. 1979.
What Is New Testament Theology?, by Dan O. Via. 2002.
What Is Postmodern Biblical Criticism?, by A. K. M. Adam. 1995.
What Is Redaction Criticism?, by Norman Perrin. 1969.
What Is Social-Scientific Criticism?, by John H. Elliott. 1993.
What Is Structural Exegesis?, by Daniel Patte. 1976.

Some advantanges/strengths and disadvantages/weaknesses of each of the methods of biblical study, as described in the PBC's "Interpretation of the Bible in the Church."

Methods of Exegesis/Interpretation	Advantages/Strengths of These Methods:	Disadvantages/Weaknesses of These Methods:
A) The Historical-Critical Method	Essential foundation to determine literal sense; need to consider sources, genres, development	Focuses on past / original meanings; might be used in ideological / anti-religious ways
B) New Methods of Literary Analysis	Supplement historical-criticical methods; value unity, rhetorical, and narrative aspects of texts	Might ignore historical roots and diachronic development of texts; not sufficient alone
C) Approaches Based on Tradition	Consider the Bible as a unified whole; focus on the big picture, overall message	Cannot be used alone; later traditions cannot ignore or replace historical-critical basis of texts
D) Approaches Using Human Sciences	Value insights from sociology, anthropology, psychology; biblical authors were real humans	Insights from modern social sciences might not apply equally to ancient / biblical societies
E) Contextual Approaches	Focus on aspects of texts often overlooked; highlight the concerns of women & the poor	Might be tendentious, ideological, overly confrontational, or excessively speculative
*F) Fundamentalist Interpretation*	Right to insist on divine inspiration and inerrancy of the Bible	Rejects critical methods of study; sometimes ignores genre; makes overly literalistic & ahistorical assumptions

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